The Johnstown Flood of 1889 stands as one of the most devastating natural disasters in American history. On May 31, 1889, the South Fork Dam near Johnstown, Pennsylvania, failed catastrophically, unleashing a torrent of water that claimed over 2,200 lives and caused widespread destruction. This tragic event has an impact on the nation’s consciousness, leading to changes in disaster response and dam safety regulations.
To understand the full scope of this calamity, it’s crucial to analyze the factors that led to the dam failure, examine the events of that fateful day, and assess the aftermath. This article delves into the structural issues of the South Fork Dam, explores the timeline of the flood, and investigates its effects on Johnstown and the surrounding areas. It also sheds light on the roles of notable figures like Andrew Carnegie and Henry Clay Frick, and discusses the establishment of the Johnstown Flood National Memorial to commemorate this significant event in American history.
The South Fork Dam: A Disaster in the Making
History of the Dam
The South Fork Dam, constructed in the 1830s, has an impact on the history of Pennsylvania’s infrastructure. It was initially built as part of the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal system, connecting Philadelphia to Pittsburgh. In 1834, engineer Sylvester Welch selected the South Fork Creek as the ideal location for a feeder reservoir. Construction began in 1840 but faced numerous setbacks, leading to a half-completed structure by 1851. This prolonged construction period had a negative effect on the dam’s integrity, contributing to its eventual failure.
The dam experienced its first failure in 1847 while still incomplete. Despite this setback, work continued, and the Western Reservoir was finally dammed on June 10, 1852. The following year, the South Fork Dam was deemed ready for operation. However, its usefulness was short-lived as the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal went out of business in 1854. The Pennsylvania Railroad acquired the entire route, including the South Fork Dam, in 1857.
The South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club
In 1879, the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, a group of wealthy industrialists from Pittsburgh, acquired the dam and surrounding property. The club transformed the area into an exclusive retreat, renaming the reservoir Lake Conemaugh. Membership was limited to the elite, with initial fees of $800 and yearly dues of $50 by 1889.
The club’s ownership had a significant effect on the dam’s maintenance and safety. Benjamin Ruff, the club’s first president, oversaw repairs to the dam, spending $17,000 on reconstruction. However, these repairs were inadequate and failed to address crucial safety concerns.
Neglect and Modifications
Under the club’s ownership, the South Fork Dam underwent several modifications that compromised its structural integrity. The club lowered the dam’s crest by approximately two feet to create a carriageway, reducing its capacity to handle overflow. They also installed fish screens in the spillway, which often became clogged with debris, further restricting water outflow.
The club’s neglect of proper maintenance had severe consequences. They failed to replace the five sluice pipes at the base of the dam, which had been removed by a previous owner. This action limited options for safely removing excess water and exacerbated a sag at the top of the dam, making it more susceptible to overtopping.
Despite warnings from engineers and concerned individuals like Daniel Johnson Morrell, a club member who offered to partially fund repairs, the club’s leadership ignored the dam’s deteriorating condition. This negligence set the stage for the catastrophic events of May 31, 1889, when the dam failed, releasing 20 million tons of water towards Johnstown and resulting in one of the worst disasters in American history.
The Day of the Flood: May 31, 1889
Weather Conditions
On May 31, 1889, western Pennsylvania experienced an unprecedented weather event that set the stage for one of the most devastating natural disasters in American history. The storm system, which had its origins on the California coast on May 26, moved slowly across the country, bringing heavy rains and unusual temperature variations. By the morning of May 31, a low-pressure system had weakened over southern Ontario, with a secondary low forming over Virginia in the lee of the Appalachians.
The rainfall in the region was exceptionally heavy, with Pittsburgh recording 1.44 inches in the 24 hours leading up to 8 am on May 31. The United States Army Signal Corps estimated that 6 to 10 inches of rain fell in just 24 hours over the affected area. This intense precipitation, combined with already saturated ground from previous rainfall, created ideal conditions for flooding.
Dam Failure
The South Fork Dam, located above Johnstown, was under immense pressure due to the torrential rainfall. On the morning of May 31, Elias Unger, president of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, awoke to find Lake Conemaugh swollen and nearly cresting the dam. Despite efforts by a crew of 30 workers to stem the overflow, the situation rapidly deteriorated.
John Parke, a young engineer working on a sewer system for the club, observed the lake’s dramatic rise overnight. He noted that the water had risen approximately 7.4 feet above its usual level. As the day progressed, the overtopping water began to form rills and gullies on the downstream face of the dam, a process known as surface detachment.
Between 2:50 and 2:55 pm, the South Fork Dam breached catastrophically. Eyewitnesses reported that the center of the dam appeared to give way suddenly, releasing a massive torrent of water. The failure was likely due to a combination of factors, including overtopping, global instability, and possibly static liquefaction. The breach allowed Lake Conemaugh to empty at an astounding rate, with an estimated peak discharge between 250,000 and 350,000 cubic feet per second.
The Path of Destruction
The flood wave, carrying debris such as trees, houses, and even railroad cars, surged down the Little Conemaugh River Valley towards Johnstown. The first town in its path, South Fork, was hit almost immediately. While most residents managed to escape to higher ground, four people lost their lives, and between 20 and 30 houses were destroyed or washed away.
As the flood continued its destructive journey, it encountered the Conemaugh Viaduct, a 78-foot-high railroad bridge. The debris temporarily jammed against the bridge’s arch, but within seven minutes, the structure collapsed, allowing the flood to resume its course with renewed force.
The village of East Conemaugh was the next to fall victim to the deluge. Witnesses described the flood as resembling “a huge hill rolling over and over.” Engineer John Hess, hearing the approaching flood, used his locomotive to warn residents, saving many lives.
Fifty-seven minutes after the dam collapsed, the flood reached Johnstown. The wall of water and debris, traveling at speeds of up to 40 miles per hour and reaching heights of 60 feet in places, caught many residents by surprise. The flood’s destructive power was further amplified when it reached the Stone Bridge in the center of Johnstown, creating a temporary dam that forced the water to surge upstream along the Stoney Creek River before returning with a second devastating wave.
Impact on Johnstown and Surrounding Areas
Loss of Life
The Johnstown Flood of 1889 had a devastating effect on human life. When the flood waters reached Johnstown, 14 miles downstream from the South Fork Dam, they surged through the city with terrifying force. The official death toll, as reported in a list printed about fourteen months after the flood, stood at 2,209 people. However, this number likely underestimates the true extent of the tragedy. Some victims were never included in the count, and estimates suggest that the actual number of deaths may have exceeded 3,000.
The flood’s impact on families was particularly heartbreaking. Ninety-nine entire families perished, including 396 children. The disaster left 124 women and 198 men widowed. In a grim testament to the flood’s destructive power, more than 750 victims were never identified and now rest in the Plot of the Unknown in Grandview Cemetery. The far-reaching effects of the flood were evident as bodies were found as far away as Cincinnati and as late as 1911.
Property Damage
The flood’s destruction extended far beyond the loss of life, causing extensive damage to property and infrastructure. Approximately 1,600 homes were destroyed, leaving thousands of survivors without shelter. The flood’s impact was so severe that four square miles of downtown Johnstown were completely obliterated.
The total property damage amounted to about $17 million at the time, equivalent to roughly $450 million in 2019 dollars. This staggering figure reflects the widespread devastation that affected homes, businesses, and public infrastructure.
The flood’s destructive force was evident in its ability to move massive objects. Several locomotives, each weighing 170,000 pounds, were swept as far as 4,800 feet by the raging waters. At the Stone Bridge, a massive pile of debris accumulated, covering an area of 30 acres and creating a temporary dam that exacerbated the flooding.
Economic Consequences
The economic impact of the Johnstown Flood was profound and long-lasting. The disaster crippled the town’s economy, destroying many businesses and leaving the community struggling to recover. The Cambria Iron and Steel Works, a major employer in the region, suffered significant damage. This company, which had produced over 210,000 tons of Bessemer ingots and 126,000 tons of steel rails in 1887, was a crucial part of the local economy.
The flood’s destruction of infrastructure, including the Pennsylvania Railroad Company’s roundhouse and numerous locomotives, further hampered economic recovery efforts. The loss of these vital transportation links made it difficult for businesses to resume operations and for relief supplies to reach the affected areas.
In response to the disaster, a massive relief effort was launched. A total of $3,742,818.78 was collected for the Johnstown relief effort from within the United States and 18 foreign countries. This outpouring of support helped to provide immediate assistance to survivors and begin the long process of rebuilding the community.
The Johnstown Flood of 1889 stands as a stark reminder of the devastating consequences of neglect and the raw power of nature. This catastrophic event had a profound impact on American history, leading to significant changes in disaster response and dam safety regulations. The tragedy’s far-reaching effects, from the massive loss of life to the extensive property damage, underscored the need for better infrastructure management and emergency preparedness.
The flood’s legacy lives on, not only in the Johnstown Flood National Memorial but also in the lessons learned and applied to modern disaster prevention and response. The outpouring of support from across the nation and around the world in the aftermath of the disaster showcased human resilience and compassion in the face of overwhelming tragedy. This event, while devastating, ultimately led to improved safety standards and a heightened awareness of the importance of proper infrastructure maintenance, leaving a lasting impact on American society.
FAQs
1. Why is the Johnstown flood of 1889 considered significant?
The Johnstown flood is notable primarily because the dam’s failure was linked to inadequate repairs by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, whose members were never held legally responsible. It remains the deadliest flood in U.S. history and ranks among the most catastrophic floods globally.
2. What caused the Johnstown flood in 1889?
The disaster occurred when the South Fork Dam was overwhelmed by water during a severe storm on May 31, 1889. This breach released approximately 20 million tons of water and debris, resulting in a flood wave known as the “Johnstown Flood,” which claimed the lives of 2,209 people.
3. What was the contribution of the American Red Cross during the Johnstown flood?
The American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton, played a crucial role in providing relief to the survivors of the Johnstown flood. They distributed furniture and supplies worth $211,000, aiding around 25,000 people in the aftermath.
4. Who was blamed for the Johnstown flood by the public?
The public and the residents of Johnstown primarily blamed Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick, and other influential members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. As owners of the dam, they were held responsible for its maintenance and the subsequent catastrophic failure.
